Document(s) 13 of 21

Food and Agriculture Organization

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) assists developing countries in the generation and transfer of science-based technologies, with the aim of supporting small-scale farmers and entrepreneurs in rural communities. The focus of assistance is on the men and women who produce most of the food in developing countries. FAO's work in research and technology development has a wide range of objectives: to increase and intensify food production; to improve consumption and nutrition; to raise the value added of agricultural produce; to improve income-earning capacity; and to create opportunities for employment in the production, processing, and marketing of agricultural goods. A large part of FAO's work in research and technology development is conducted in close cooperation with researchers and research institutions in developing and developed countries.

The application of science and technology to the improvement of living standards in developing countries has been a primary goal of FAO's activities since its foundation. To pursue this goal, the functional focus has traditionally been on activities that address the most basic needs of people and would, in addition, have a positive economic effect. Small-scale economic activities are a major source of

rural and coastal livelihoods in developing countries. Much of this employment and income may be of a semisubsistence nature and poorly remunerative, but some enterprises are profitable and, occasionally, grow to a significant size. Even the semisubsistence enterprises are important because they reduce open unemployment and are accessible to the disadvantaged segments of society, such as women and the landless. Although the basic focus on the poor in developing countries has remained the same over the years, general approaches to assisting the poor have been modified to take advantage of experiences gained and to accommodate changes in the recipient environment.

The focus of technical assistance may have to be reconsidered because of the general move toward private-sector development. In the past, research and development (R&D) capacity has been geared toward helping national institutions, which, in turn, were to transfer R&D capability to local people. This approach has achieved very limited success on the ground. In future, it may be more worthwhile to concentrate less on research capacity per se and focus more on mechanisms to transfer this capacity to the sectors that can turn it into practical economy-building activities.

FAO operates with a very wide range of technology-transfer activities to address the basic needs of low-income populations, even if we consider only FAO's activities in food production and processing. The range of commodity coverage spans virtually all the known edible animal, aquatic, and plant products. The scope of technical activities employed to assist in the execution of small-scale economic activities is equally vast and includes basic production and all postharvest activities, including storage, transformation, and analytical technologies. In some cases, these technologies are used to stabilize perishable goods so that they may be marketed over an extended period, but in other cases, technologies are used to transform basic commodities into more marketable forms. The technologies used in this process may include traditional and modern technologies to reduce natural toxicity and specific antinutritional factors in certain foods.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to describe in detail the wide range of small-scale, technology-based economic activities covered by FAO. For example, the unit of FAO dealing with the processing of plant products covers close to 100 different commodities, which are convertible to items in more than 30 product groups (for example, juices, flours, baked or fermented products, and infant foods). More than 50 types of technology (for example, milling, extraction, extrusion, and dehydration), from rudimentary-cottage scale to small-industrial scale, are used. When additional sectors, such as meat, fish and other aquatic resources, and nonwood forest resources, are considered, the range of technologies employed is enormous. The

following is a brief account of the work of FAO in developing research and technology for small-scale economic activities to address basic needs, with special emphasis on food production and processing.

Basic production

Crops

FAO promotes technologies for the sustainable production of cereals and food legumes, roots, tubers, vegetables, and fruits, which constitute staple-food crops for the majority of people in developing countries. In recent years, FAO has elaborated an integrated plant-nutrition system and an integrated pest-management approach that are environmentally sound and socially and economically feasible. The focus of attention is the cropping system, rather than an individual crop.

FAO conducts field trials with farmers to demonstrate options for improved production. Among the improvements introduced by FAO are increased access to marginal growing areas for different crops, appropriate agronomic practices, and identification and field introduction of improved varieties. Special emphasis is given to testing locally available and low-cost inputs, tailoring input applications to specific localities, and training national research and extension staff.

For some perishable crops, such as roots and tubers, or protein and oil crops, such as tropical soybeans, increased production should be linked to increased capacity for postharvest processing and handling at the village level. Therefore, FAO promotes technologies to generate more value added in the processing of such crops and is also developing projects to integrate processing with improved production techniques.

FAO also promotes home gardening and fruit-tree development, linked with nutrition education, and has prepared technical material for specific country conditions and national languages, as well as generic technical documentation for use in a wide range of countries.

Livestock

Ruminant livestock is the most important animal resource in many developing countries and for the smallholders who are FAO's assistance priority. FAO gives some attention to camelids and small-animal production. FAO concentrates its R&D on large and small ruminants in the developing regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

FAO conducts training, demonstration, and research in a regional cooperative network related to sheep and goats. FAO has made a computerized global inventory of activities related to small ruminants and has set up networking and training activities covering pigs and poultry. FAO has established a network on draft-animal power in Africa that provides information on the design of tools and harnesses for the better use of the animals.

FAO has taken the lead in coordinating international efforts in prevention, diagnosis, control, and eradication of livestock diseases. The FAO reference laboratories and FAO-WHO collaborating centres dealing with diagnosis constitute a global network of 20 units (9 of these are in developing countries), covering 29 diseases. These centres assist with diagnosis of diseases, preparation and distribution of diagnostic reagents, and training of specialists in laboratory diagnostic procedures.

Large populations of cattle and buffalo in the developing world are still at risk from rinderpest. FAO established two veterinary vaccine centres in East and West Africa to test rinderpest vaccine for the Pan African Rinderpest Campaign, and these centres have also held subregional seminars on vaccine quality control.

A regional project has been promoting the use of trypanosome-tolerant livestock, such as the n'dama cattle of West Africa, for rural development in areas infested by the tsetse fly. This project is making progress in n'dama-genome mapping. A program for the control of ticks and tick-prone diseases in East and Central Africa is in its second phase. In cooperation with the International Atomic Energy Agency, several governments, and donors, FAO was instrumental in quickly eradicating the screwworm fly from North Africa.

Fisheries

FAO work in fisheries focuses on conservation and rational use of fisheries resources; development of small-scale fisheries and aquaculture; and improved fish use and marketing, with emphasis on the reduction of waste and postharvest losses. Research on better fishing technologies promoted by FAO has led to the introduction of appropriate new types of vessels, fishing gear, and energy-efficient water transport.

A project to develop small-scale fisheries in the Bay of Bengal was implemented by FAO more than a decade ago. The project has introduced technical advances to increase production, such as beach landing craft and improved fishing gear, supporting their use with social improvements, such as credit schemes (particularly for women) and nonformal education and training.

About 35 African countries participate in an FAO program for applied research on fish use, mainly at artisanal levels. FAO has done work on locally constructed smoking ovens that are more fuel efficient and on insulated storage containers that retard the melting of ice.

Rural industry

Farming systems

One of the keys to sustainable development in resource-poor areas is better management of farm production systems to minimize risks and enable the farm household to withstand shocks and stress. For small farms, FAO places special emphasis on efficient, sustainable operation that uses available material and labour resources, raises farm output, and increases farm and farm-family income.

FAO has supported studies on integrated crop and livestock farming systems in circumstances of pastoralism, shifting cultivation, and plantation cropping. The objective of such studies is intensified livestock production, coupled (when nomadic pastoralists are being settled) with increased fodder and crop production. The provision of animal feed is also promoted, for example, through a research network on the use of crop residues and agro-industrial products in West Africa.

Through the introduction and support of a wide range of engineering technologies, FAO seeks to improve production, reduce the risk of failure, and alleviate drudgery for farm families, especially for women in developing countries. National agricultural research institutions, extension agencies, and end-users are encouraged to select technologies appropriate to the relevant farming systems.

Rural energy

Agriculture is an important user of energy in rural areas. Fuelwood accounts for about 60% of the energy consumed in Africa. About 30 developing countries depend on it for more than two thirds of their energy. However, the energy inputs required by rural populations is still in deficit in most developing countries. Heating, electricity, or mechanical power is needed for cooking food, transportation, and other local services. More energy is needed, but in many cases, per capita energy consumption has declined with population growth, as a result of shortage of fuelwood supplies, transportation problems, and high costs. FAO promotes new and renewable sources of energy to meet the requirements of rural populations in developing countries.

FAO's largest program on renewable sources of energy concentrates on solving the problems of fuelwood-deficit areas. Modern technologies are available to generate energy in various forms, but these technologies need to be adapted to local needs and possibilities. Biogas production, based on anaerobic digestion of organic wastes and residues, is expanding in many developing countries. FAO supports the greater diffusion of technologies through national projects for both small- and large-scale systems. Solar- or wind-energy sources are used for cooking, heating and pumping water, heating greenhouses, and refrigeration. However, the efficiency and reliability of solar- and wind-energy systems need to be improved and their costs reduced for these sources to be used widely.

Food handling and processing

Too much of the world's food harvest is lost to spoilage and infestations on its journey to the consumer. Losses occur in all operations, from harvesting through to handling, storage, processing, and marketing. Proper evaluation of postharvest technologies should consider the entire postharvest chain, using loss assessment as a tool for understanding when, where, and why losses occur. Such an evaluation should include technical, economic, and social components and involve beneficiary participation throughout. Small-scale agro-industries are the major pipeline of food, fibre, and agriculturally based industrial commodities to the population. The small-scale agro-industry sector ensures that any comparative agricultural advantage that a country may have is sustained through the preservation and shelf-life extension of these materials in the most convenient and usable form. Thus, meeting the basic needs for food, clothing, and construction materials depends on a country's agro-industrial base.

The technical-assistance community is clearly giving more attention to small-scale food and agricultural enterprises. This is understandable because the agro-industries sector contributes significantly to the economies of developing countries. Agro-industries, regardless of scale, are generally defined as those industries engaged in a full range of economic activities involving raw materials derived from natural resources. Because the economies of most developing countries are agriculturally based, agro-industries generally contribute more than 50% of the overall manufacturing sector's added value. Agro-industries also have an extraordinary ability to generate employment opportunities. In many developing countries, small-scale agro-industry is often the largest employer in the manufacturing sector.

Handling and storage of products

For rural handling and storage of farm inputs and outputs, FAO seeks to develop and make available farm- and village-level technologies that use locally available construction materials and building designs that reflect social and cultural traditions. The individual farmers make the decisions to adopt new or improved technologies. Application of simple techniques for harvesting, postharvest treatment, grading, sorting, and presentation of many fruits and vegetables, at village and community levels, has proven profitable for small-scale growers in numerous countries. The introduction of controlled-atmosphere techniques (where feasible) has provided access to more local and export markets.

Agro-industries

The role of agro-industries in economic development is often underestimated. These industries aim to improve the quality and increase the value of primary agricultural products. Appropriate technologies are particularly needed for processing food in rural areas of developing countries. Traditional technologies can sometimes be upgraded to enhance the shelf life and consumer acceptance of indigenous foods, as well as developing value added for products with export potential.

FAO has issued a compendium of traditional food-processing technologies in Africa and supports research for, and establishment of, small- and medium-scale food-processing industries. The emphasis has been on food preservation in rural and semiurban areas, on small-scale, labour-intensive industries with low-cost available materials, and on import substitution.

FAO has promoted research on the processing of cereals, legumes, roots, and tubers into flours for indigenous convenience foods. In Africa, FAO has helped women's groups improve the handling, storage, and processing of cassava, maize, and other staples, contributing to food security at the village level. In other regions, rice milling has been made more efficient through the rehabilitation of existing mills and the establishment of new processing units. Rice parboiling has been introduced as a means of extending the yield and improving the nutritional value of rice.

New or modified technologies for slaughtering and meat handling and processing have been introduced in areas with an undeveloped infrastructure. Among these technologies are small-scale abattoirs for hygienic slaughtering in the absence of electricity and an adequate water supply, as well as mobile slaughter facilities. Because refrigeration is rarely available in the rural areas of developing countries, FAO focuses on traditional and modern, low-cost meat-preservation

methods, such as meat-drying and other technologies yielding low- or intermediate-moisture products.

As a result of population growth and increased per capita incomes, demand for milk and dairy products exceeds supply in most developing countries. This is felt most acutely in urban areas, where people often resort to costly imported milk powder to meet requirements. The resulting increase in consumer demand provides an opportunity for year-round employment in smallholder dairy operations, thus making use of family and local labour resources. Establishing a functional link between small-scale milk producers and the growing markets requires the transfer of appropriate technologies for collection, processing, and distribution, and this is an area where FAO is very active. In addition, the conversion of milk to various dairy products, such as cheese and yoghurt, results in expanded markets for products with a longer shelf life. FAO is developing a low-cost, village-level processing model and is studying village-level use of microbial starters and possible rennet substitutes for cheese making.

Special efforts have been made to promote apiculture through improvements in beekeeping technologies, hives, equipment, and management methods. Enhanced control of processing has increased the yield and improved the quality of honey and beeswax. FAO has given special support to sericulture development through training in technology for the production and processing of natural silk. FAO has promoted improvements in mulberry-tree cultivation and harvesting, silkworm breeding, cocoon production and disease control, silkworm-egg production, and silk reeling. Such technology can bring high returns for small-scale farmers, including women.

Agricultural products other than food should also be processed to increase value, secure markets, and raise returns for the primary producers. FAO has assisted in the development of processing techniques for natural fibres at the farm and village levels. These techniques include the scouring, grading, testing, and processing of wool, mohair, alpaca, cashmere, cotton, and jute. Labour-intensive small-scale or cottage industries, such as spinning, dyeing, and weaving, require relatively low capital investment and have benefited rural women in particular.

The use of animals for other than meat commodities is another basis for small-scale industry. Improved techniques are now available for flaying, curing, and preserving hides and skins and for using blood, bones, horns, hooves, and intestines to produce marketable commodities, such as glue, sausage casings, animal feed, and fertilizer. FAO has also facilitated the introduction of the wet-salting technique for curing hides and skins from goats and cattle, which in

many instances increases their value by as much as 150 and 200%, respectively.

Small-scale agro-industries provide for basic food, shelter, and energy needs and are centrally involved in health through medicinal plants. Until 150 years ago, crude plants were central to all medicine, and herbs are humankind's most ancient therapeutic aid. Their central role in medicine throughout the ages eventually led to these plants becoming part of a folkloric tradition. Because developing countries, particularly those in tropical or semitropical regions, have a comparative advantage in the production of medicinal plants, a number of FAO technical units are providing assistance to this sector.

Nonwood forest products

More than a decade ago, FAO launched the Forestry for Local Community Development program to help forestry play a more effective role in rural development. The program continues but is now called Forests, Trees and People. In this program, FAO has targeted for study small-scale, forest-based enterprises for the creation of off-farm employment and income opportunities in rural areas.

Small-scale, forest-based enterprises generally have 1.8-3.8 workers, including the owner. More than 60% of these enterprises are one-person operations, that is, the owner is also the only worker. In many countries, enterprises based on nonwood forest products, such as grasses, leaves, cane, and bamboo, are smaller but far more numerous than enterprises based on wood. If enterprises involving fruit, honey, mushrooms, and wildlife meat are added, the dominance of nonwood forest industries in the category of small-scale enterprises becomes even more marked. In promoting the development of nonwood forest products, FAO does not look at the product or commodity in isolation but at a wide range of factors that could help people exploit and manage these resources for sustainability and market the final products for profit.

Information and technology transfer

FAO most often disseminates technology for small-scale economic activities through its technical bulletins and newsletters. The bulletins contain complete factual information on a wide range of small-scale technologies, along with associated economic, management, and marketing information where appropriate. The newsletters keep extension

agencies and individuals informed about technological innovations and provide additional information on where to get more data.

In certain cases, when warranted, FAO has established networks to disseminate technologies for the small-scale food industry in Latin America and Asia. These networks work fairly well if only a few government agencies are involved but have definite limitations in reaching a wide client base of entrepreneurs. Cooperative research programs are a cost-effective way of dealing with technological issues: professional resources can be consulted close to where the issues arise. Expert technical consultations are also used to focus on specific technical interventions. When low-orbit satellite communications technology is more firmly established, it may be possible to use cellular transmission technology to reach a much wider client base directly. This would greatly enhance the extension infrastructures in most developing countries.

To achieve a higher rate of adoption of recommended technologies and to spread the know-how, FAO has been promoting the development and use of agricultural extension systems, agricultural schools, and farmers' organizations. In 1990, FAO's Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension reported that the world had about 600000 trained extension workers, who could be used to spread available technologies for small-scale farming.

Future issues

The political mood in the developing world has changed dramatically in the last decade. An almost universal shift has taken place away from centrally planned economies and toward market-driven economies. As a result, technical assistance to the developing world has to shift away from government and toward the private entrepreneur. A radical rethinking of the entire technical-assistance process will be required if we are to effectively contribute to private-enterprise development. Future initiatives will have to be directed to fostering new alliances to effectively meet these challenges. We must be innovative enough to serve private entrepreneurs with programs that support economic development and provide the information, expertise, and contacts that result in profitable and sustainable enterprises.

Despite major efforts to maintain in developing countries an up-to-date awareness of the potential benefits of modern, small-scale technologies, certain trends in the dissemination, ownership, and distribution of technical knowledge may negatively affect developing countries. Our knowledge base in the sciences has traditionally been anchored in research at public universities. However, a large and

growing part of university research is funded by private interests that exert a certain degree of control over the dissemination and use of this information. This has resulted in the private sequestering of an inordinate level of scientific information, excluding it from science's global intellectual base. The developing countries are most severely affected by this trend because they are entirely dependent on the public information base for their scientific knowledge.

Document(s) 13 of 21